除了以前提过的贡斯当(Benjamin Constant,1767 – 1830),托克维尔 (Alexis de Tocqueville, 1805 – 1859)和阿克顿(Lord Acton, 1834 – 1902),十九世纪另一位古典自由主义大师是穆勒(John S. Mill,1806 – 1873),他的《论自由》(On Liberty, 1859)是自由主义的经典文献,被哈耶克称为“伟大的小书”,而伯林也称穆勒为“建立了近代自由主义的人物”。穆勒的贡献在于他不仅奠定了自由的个体性原则,还通过功利主义(utilitarianism)的解释肯定了自由主义对于社会之稳定和发展的功能,使自由的概念不再限于洛克的自然权利理论,而落脚于现实的手段和实践上。同时,穆勒受到卢梭的影响,认为社会也应当为个人提供物质、教育和道德环境,使个人自由成长。具有讽刺意义的是,穆勒也是古典自由主义的终结者,因为功利主义对公共利益的强调使个人权利的重要性开始受到掩盖,以至发展到后来的马克思主义者只关注社会平等而忽略了对个人自由的捍卫,为极权主义的出现铺平了道路。关于这一点,哈耶克对穆勒颇有微词,认为他是自由主义衰微的始作俑者,对“西方世界的知识分子投身于社会主义这一问题负有主要责任”(哈耶克:《知识、进化与社会》)。因此,哈对穆勒的看法是相当矛盾的。作者: adagio 时间: 2006-6-23 23:25 需要提及穆勒之前的一位德国人:威廉。冯。洪堡(Wilhelm von Humboldt 1767 – 1835, 其弟为著名的自然学家Alexander von Humboldt),其著作The Limits of State Action让穆勒深受影响,他重申并拓展了洪堡的自由主义的概念,还在《论自由》的扉页上引用了洪堡在The Limits of State Action中的一段话:The grand, leading principle, towards which every argument unfolded in these pages directly converges, is the absolute and essential importance of human development in its richest diversity. 我有种感觉,穆勒感兴趣的还是积极自由,因此有意无意间会将自由主义往社会公益上引导。等读了On Liberty再作结论。
下面是有关洪堡著作的介绍 -
The Limits of State Action – Sphere and Duties of Government, by "Germany’s greatest philosopher of freedom," as F. A. Hayek called him, has an exuberance and attention to principle that make it a valuable introduction to classical liberal political thought. It is also crucial for an understanding of liberalism as it developed in Europe at the turn of the nineteenth century. Humboldt explores the role that liberty plays in individual development, discusses criteria for permitting the state to limit individual actions, and suggests ways of confining the state to its proper bounds. In so doing, he uniquely combines the ancient concern for human excellence and the modern concern for what has come to be known as negative liberty.